Constructivism’s arrival in IR is often associated with the
end of the Cold War, and event that the traditional theories such as realism
and liberalism failed to account for…
Constructivism accounts for this issue by arguing that the social world
is of our making (Onuf 1989). Actors continually shape – and sometimes reshape –
the very nature of international relations through their actions and
interactions.
The basics of constructivism
Constructivism sees the world, and what can know about the
world, as socially constructed. This view refers to the nature of reality and
the nature of knowledge that are also called ontology and epistemology in
research language… This also entails that reality is always under construction,
which opens the prospect for change. In other words, meanings are not fixed but
can change over time depending on the ideas and beliefs that actors hold.
Constructivists argue that agency and structure are mutually
constituted… If theses beliefs and ideas change, the social relationship can
change… This stance differs considerably from that of realists, who argue that
the anarchic structure of the international system determines the behavior of
states. Constructivists, on the other hand, argue that ‘anarchy is what states
make of it’ (Wendt 1992). This means that anarchy can be interpreted in
different ways depending on the meaning that actors assign to it.
Another central issue to constructivism is identities and
interests… Identities are representations of an actor’s understanding of who
they are, which in turn signals their interests. They are important to constructivists
as they argue that identities constitute interests and actions.
Social norms are central to constructivism. These are
generally defined as ‘a standard of appropriate behavior for actors with a
given identity’ (Katzenstein 1996, 5). States that conform to a certain
identity are expected to comply with the norms that are associated with that
identity… This process is also known as ‘the logic of appropriateness’, where
actors behave in certain ways because they believe that this behavior is
appropriate (March and Olsen 1998, 951-952). To better understand norms, we can
identify three types: regulative norms, constitutive norms, and prescriptive
norms… A norm only becomes an expected behavior when a critical mass of
relevant state actors adopt it and internalize it in their own practices.
Although all constructivists share the above-mentioned views
and concepts, there is considerable variety within constructivism. Conventional
constructivists ask ‘what’-type questions – such as what causes an actor to act… Critical constructivists, on the other
hand, ask ‘how’-type questions such as how
do actors come to believe in a certain identity… Language plays a key role
for critical constructivists because it constructs, and has the ability to
change, social reality.
Most constructivists, however, position themselves between
these two more extreme ends of the spectrum.
Constructivism and Bhutan’s national interests
Bhutan is a Buddhist kingdom located in the Himalayas… Bhutan
shares a national border with the two major powers in Asia: China in the north
and India in the south. Bhutan’s location is geographically sensitive as the country
serves as a buffer state between these major powers, which perceive each other
as rivals rather than friends… To date there remains an ongoing border dispute
between Bhutan and China… Likewise, India has had a hand in Bhutan’s foreign
policy.
From a realist perspective, one would argue that Bhutan is
in an unfavorable position as it is hindered by its geographical location and
cannot compete for power with its neighbors… A constructivist view, on the
other hand, would argue that these structural conditions do not necessarily
constrain Bhutan’s ability to pursue its national interests since they are not
the only conditions that influence sate behavior: the meaning given to these structural conditions also matters… A
constructivist is well placed to detect and understand these changes since
their object of enquiry focuses on the social relationships between states.
Bhutan has also developed a distinctive national identity
that differentiates it from its larger neighbors. This identity projects Bhutan
as ‘the last surviving independent Mahayana Buddhist Kingdom in the world.’
Bhutan’s national identity is socially constructed through a Bhutanization process that started in
the 1980s…
As mentioned earlier in the chapter, a norm needs to go
through a lifecycle before it becomes established.
Members of the Bhutanese elite have also created a second
identity, which projects Bhutan as a leader in advancing a holistic and sustainable
development paradigm.
Conclusion
Constructivism is often said to simply state the obvious –
that actions, interactions and perceptions shape reality… Yet this seemingly
simple idea, when applied theoretically, has significant implications for how
we can understand the world. The discipline of International Relations benefits
from constructivism as it addresses issues and concepts that are neglected by
mainstream theories – especially realism. Doing so, constructivists offer
alternative explanations and insights for events occurring in the social world.
They show, for instance, that it is not only the distribution of material power,
wealth and geographical conditions that can explain state behavior but also
ideas, identities and norms. Furthermore, their focus on ideational factors
shows that reality is not fixed, but rather subject to change.
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